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Sports Psychology involves applying parts of psychology, which is the study of the brain and how it relates to our mental processes and behaviors, to sports and athletes. One of the main areas that sports psychologists focus on is to help athletes achieve any goals that they might have. The main group of people that sports psychologists try to help are professional athletes, however sports psychologists also help amateur athletes as well. Sports psychologists mainly focus on problems the athlete has on the field but they can also help athletes with problems that they have off the field. The field of sports psychology was not focused on until the mid to late twentieth century, even though there were many developments prior to this point in history.

History

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European History and the Beginnings of the Field

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The field of sports psychology started developing at the end of the Nineteenth century in Europe, when sports and the body were starting to become a more important part of people’s lives. During the 1880s more and more sports were starting to be developed and were becoming a big part of the lifestyle of the people of this time period. However, as far as we know the word psychology was not used in connection with the word sport, at least in title, before the late 1890s. [1] In 1899 and 1900, the phrase psychology of sport started to appear in the titles of journal articles, specifically two articles. The first one was by Balduin Groller. It was published in two parts in October and December of 1899 in the journal Die Wage under the title “Zur Psychologie des Sportes” (translated About the Psychology of Sport).[2] The main point of this article was that there are certain parts of psychology that had not been researched at that time that could be connected to sports and physical activities. Only a few months later, in May 1900, an essay by the founder of the modern Olympic movement, Pierre de Coubertin, appeared under the nearly identical title “Le Psychologie du Sport” (translated The Psychology of Sport).[3]

The first stepping stones to the foundation or basic parts of sports psychology were starting to be seen in the 1870s-1880s. In 1875, Pyotr Francevich Lesgaft, a Russian who studied the human body, started to create a system of physical education. His aim was to promote harmony between the body and soul (or mind).[4] The method Lesgaft recommended was to learn conscious control of the body. This can also be explained as being able to think about controlling the body and then actually controlling it. Then in 1884-1885, Karoly Budinsky described in his article, “About Gymnastic Activity and the Development of Will”, that people can help their self – control and willpower grow by making the nervous system stronger through physical exercise. [5]

Two scientists and sports enthusiasts stand at the beginning of European sport psychology: Angelo Mosso and Philippe Tissie.[6] Angelo Mosso was an Italian who studied the human body. He was also interested in using science to study physical education, exercise, and sport. In his experiments, Mosso found that mental work causes weakness of the muscles and that physical work causes weakness in mental performance. This can be connected to psychology through the fact that the mental parts of the body can influence the physical parts and vice versa. In 1894, Mosso conducted an experiment with his brother, Ugolino Mosso. In this experiment he had ten Italian Mountain soldiers climb to the top of the mountain and live in a hut for ten days and had them perform physical exercises. There are two parts of his results that are related to sports psychology. The first one we can call the pioneer effect: in mountain climbing, the person who is leading the group will be more fatigued than his followers. [7] The second is the rivaling effect: he observed that the soldiers, especially in periods of boredom, spontaneously developed a tendency to compete with each other in their weight lifting tests. [8] In 1891, Philippe Tissie started doing research that is considered to be key pieces of work in sports psychology. The first part of his research was the study of the psychological phenomena of training and competition, and second was the search into the possibility of the therapeutic use of sport and physical exercise against psychopathological disorders, or mental and behavioral disorders. [9]

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, sports were starting to be viewed as a way to treat mental disorders. The first person who began thinking as sports as a form of therapy was Philippe Tissie, who in several articles he published between 1894 and 1909, started talking about how sports could help people with mental disorders and how sports could also cause mental problems. He thought that a combination of sport, gymnastics, and psychological methods could help people with mental disorders and that playing in to many sports could also cause people to have mental disorders and behavioral problems. [10] Then in 1896, a French doctor named Charles du Pasquier published an article that talked about how sports could help people who had depression. In 1900, Eduard Bertz, stated that sports could help people maintain a healthy body and soul (mind). [11] Later in 1913, Toby Cohn viewed sports as a way to bring about a certain psychological traits and functions, such as self-confidence, emotional stability, and goal orientation.[12] In 1914, Bernhard Berliner conducted the first study done in order to study the effects that sports and exercise had on the mind and psychology. In his study, he looked at children who participated in exercise and sports while at a camp. As a result of his study he found that children who participated in sports and exercise where able to increase their ability to concentrate.[13]

The next major developments that took place in sports psychology were in Europe and happened during the 1920s. One of these developments was the opening of the first sports psychology lab in Berlin, Germany by Carl Diem in 1920. The next major development also took place in 1920. This development was the opening of a psychological laboratory by Robert Werner Schulte at the Deutsche Hochschue fur Leibesubungen near Berlin. [14] The Deutsche Hochschue fur Leigesubungen was a College for Physical Education. This lab was used to study the natural ability that people had for playing and doing good in sports. Schulte was also credited with making the first devices used to measure the effects psychology and sports have on each other. He also included sports psychology in his talks to students who took physical education. Then in 1921, he published his first book, which was named Body and Mind in Sport. [15] He then continued to go on to write many books about the topic of sport psychology, including a book called Aptitude and Performance Testing in Sport, which was publish in 1925. This is considered to be his most important contribution to the field of sports psychology. The next major development came in 1926. This development was the first psychoanalysis, or studying the unconscious mind and its influence on behavior, of how people are motivated in sports by Helene Deutsch. She reported that a patient who was suffering from depression and anxiety was temporarily helped by playing or participating in sports and that sports could help people deal with their fears.

There were also major developments to the field of sports psychology that took place in Russia. The first sports psychology experiments were done beginning in 1925. Russian sports psychologist Petr Antonovic Rudik did research in 1925 on the development of skills, on the influence of muscular work on reaction time, and on reactions during sport performance. [16] In 1926, Alexander Netchayev did research on how perception, memory, imagination, and attention are influenced by sports and physical activities. Rudik said in 1963, that the first sports psychology research departments were started around 1930 at the institutes of physical culture in Moscow and Leningrad. [17]

North American History

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The first known mentions of sports psychology in North America came in the 1890s. During the 1890s, E. W. Scripture studied the reaction times of runners in his Yale laboratory. Another area that Scripture focused on in his laboratory was how athletes could benefit from the field of experimental psychology. Outside of his laboratory, he wrote about how sports affect a person's character. In his papers he argued that felons who participated in athletic activities while in prison showed improvement in general attitude. [18]

George Wells Fitz also contributed to the field of sports psychology. Fitz created what is believed to be the first physical education laboratory in North America. [19] In 1895, Fitz ran an experiment that focused on studying the reaction times of people. He reported from his results that people who demonstrated quicker and more accurate reaction times would be better at sports. [20] Fitz’s study was the first experiment to begin applying the rules of science to the field of sports and physical activities.

The next topic that was studied in the development of the field of sports psychology was the concept known as transfer of training. Transfer of training occurs when you exercise one arm or one side of the body to make it stronger and the other side also becomes stronger without having any exercise. [21] This area was first studied by Walter Wells Davis in the late 1800s. Davis ran an experiment that involved having people lift weights with one arm and not the other. His results confirmed the theory of transfer of training. [22] William G. Anderson also studied this concept. He conducted a series of experiments, in which he found that people who squeezed an object on one side of the body also got stronger on the opposite side of the body.[23]

The next major developments that came in the field of sports psychology were done by Norman Tripplett. Norman Tripplett worked at the University of Indiana as a psychologist. He conducted an experiment that focused on competition. This experiment started to connect sports and psychology and began to combine them into one field.[24] In 1897, Tripplett started his study and focused on how the performance of one person is influenced by other people being around. In 1898, he wrote about his results in his article called “The Dynamogenic Factors Involved in Pace-making and Competition”. His beliefs and findings were that cyclists were more likely to cycle faster when in the presence of a pacemaker or a competitor because the presence of another person caused them to put in more effort and use energy that they were not before. [25] In 1898, Tripplett tried to confirm his predictions and beliefs he came up with during the cycling study by running an experiment in laboratory. This experiment consisted of people winding fishing line as fast as they could in order to move a flag around a course.[26] The results of this experiment confirmed the results and predictions that were found in the cycling study.

The 1900s brought even more developments to the field of sports psychology. One of the first developments of the 1900s came from G. T. W. Patrick. In 1903, Patrick studied the psychology of American football. He specifically focused on why the people or the citizens of the United States loved football so much. [27] Next in 1912, Howard wanted to discover why people became so emotional while watching sports. [28] Then in 1915, Karl S. Lashley and John B. Watson started a study that focused on the learning curve of people in sports, or how people learn the skills they need to in order to succeed at sports. The sport that they focused their study on was archery. The results of their study lead them to argue that when people were participating in harder tasks, like archery, they were more likely to be more motivated to complete that task. [29]

Sportswriter Hugh S. Fullerton is involved in the next development in the history of sports psychology. Fullerton brought New York Yankees player Babe Ruth to a psychology laboratory at Columbia University. Fullerton brought Ruth there to participate in a study run by Albert Johanson and Joseph Holmes because he wanted to find a reason for why Ruth hit so many home runs and to prove to other baseball scouts whether or not other players like Ruth existed.[30]The study that Ruth participated in was used to study sensory-motor performance or to study how things that we perceive with our senses influence our movements. The study involved measuring the power of Ruth’s swing, his reaction time, his attention, his memory, and his motor skills.[31] The results of this study offered a reason for why Ruth hit so many home runs. His skill for hitting home runs could be because on the tests his motor skills and reflexes scored above average. [32] The next development that came regarded football. At Stanford University, B.C. Graves, a psychology graduate student, Walter Miles, a professor, and Glenn “Pop” Warner, a college football coach started an experiment that studied reaction time so they could find the fastest way to get the offense to move together when the center hiked the ball. [33] This led to the use of psychology as a way to gain an advantage over your opponent in a competition. [34]

Coleman Griffith

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Even though there were many developments to this field prior to this point, the most important did not come until the time of Coleman Griffith. Griffith is considered to be the father of sports psychology in North America. Griffith was a professor at the University of Illinois. Griffith's first contribution was that he started a section in his introductory to psychology class that only athletes could take. Then in 1921, he gave the first public talk about psychology and athletics. [35] In 1923, he started a special course focusing on psychology and sports. It was called Psychology and Athletics and the textbook that was used was Griffith’s third book, titled Psychology of Coaching. [36] Later in 1924, Griffith began meeting with Knute Rockne, who was a football coach at Notre Dame, to explore how coaching was affected by psychology.

The next major contribution that Griffith made was in 1925, when he opened the first American laboratory that studied the how sports and psychology affected each other. This lab was only able to stay open for six years. After the closure of the laboratory, Griffith was contacted in 1937 by Philip Wrigley, owner of the Major League Baseball team the Chicago Cubs, who offered him a job. Griffith accepted the job. He called the project Experimental Laboratories of the Chicago National League Ball Club and ordered new equipment that would help him to study sports psychology. [37] While with the Cubs, Griffith studied how psychological factors influenced performance. Based on the results of his research Griffith made recommendations to Wrigley. These recommendations included psychological clinics for the players, holding fielding practice, and having achievement tests to measure the athletes’ basic skills. [38] However, Wrigley did not follow these recommendations but was still impressed by Griffith’s work. Wrigley offered Griffith a full-time position as a sports psychologist in 1939, but he refused the job to stay with his family. After this Griffith did not conduct anymore major research in the area of sports psychology.


Sports Psychology after Griffith: The 20th century

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The field of sports psychology was slow to advance during the mid-twentieth century, with only a few developments. The first occurred in the 1920s and 1930s, when psychology was beginning to be discussed and taught at coaching schools. [39] Some coaches used what they learned about sports psychology while coaching their teams. Paul Brown, head coach of the Cincinnati Bengals, began using psychological testing with his players. His tests eventually became known as the beginning of the National Football League’s tests that are used today. [40] During the 1940s, psychology was starting to be used as a way for athletes to improve their performance. Psychology professor Dorothy Hazeltine Yates helped a boxer try to improve his skills through psychology; the boxer then went on to have the best fights of his career. [41] Also during the 1940s, the psychological technique known as hypnosis was starting to be used as a way to get athletes to relax. During the 1950s, David F. Tracy began using psychological methods to help players on the St. Louis Browns, a major league baseball team, and known today as the Baltimore Orioles. [42]

The development of sports psychology started to advance rapidly starting in the 1960s. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, sports were becoming more important to people, therefore anything that could help athletes perform better also was becoming more accepted. This included psychology. Sports psychology became established on a more well known, permanent basis in the 1960s when academic departments, textbooks, scholarly journals, and professional associations were being put into place. [43] In 1965, The International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP) was formed. [44] Then in 1967, the American national association was formed. It was called the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA) and its mission was to promote the research and teaching of the psychology of sport and exercise. [45] In 1970, the International Journal of Sport Psychology was established. [46] The next major development involved Dorothy V. Harris. She developed one of the first graduate school programs for sports psychology at Penn State. [47] In 1979, the Journal of Sport Psychology was started. [48] Later in 1984, sports psychologists were being used at the Olympics and in 1985, the United States Olympic Committee officially hired its first sports psychologist. [49] The United States Olympic Committee describes 12 services that sports psychologists offer. These services are enhancing motivation, enhancing concentration, improving self-talk, goal setting, increasing ability to handle pressure, handling distractions, relationship issues, family issues, stress management, sleep problems, eating/body image issues, and career planning. [50] By the 1996 Summer Olympics, more than 20 sports psychologists were working with athletes. [51] There were also other associations and journals started during the 1970s and 1980s. These were the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology, the American Psychological Association’s Division 47 of Exercise and Sport Psychology, the Sport Psychology Academy of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, the Journal of Sport Science, the Sport Psychologist, and the Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. [52]

Modern Sports Psychology

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Today there are two types of sports psychology, academic and applied. Academic sports psychology focuses on doing research about sports psychology. Applied sports psychology uses that research to teach people in the athletic field. Today there are three main areas of focus in applied sports psychology. They are what kinds of certification, education, or licenses people need to practice applied sports psychology, the need to provide a certain kind of training for people who are studying applied sports psychology, such as graduate students, and creating new techniques or ways to help athletes while using applied sports psychology. [53] The future of sports psychology and how it advances depends on the kind of laboratory studies and research that is done in the field. Future studies should use large sample sizes or include a large number of people in the study, they should use multiple types of sports, they should use multiple types of ways to measure an athlete's performance, and they should use research teams from outside studies in order to create more accurate results. [54] Future studies should also try to expand on current ideas as to why changes in athletes' performance occur or happen while they are playing sports. [55]

References

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  1. ↑ Green, C.D. & Benjamin, L.T. (2009). Psychology gets in the game. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  2. ↑ Green, C.D. & Benjamin, L.T. (2009). Psychology gets in the game. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  3. ↑ Green, C.D. & Benjamin, L.T. (2009). Psychology gets in the game. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  4. ↑ Green, C.D. & Benjamin, L.T. (2009). Psychology gets in the game. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  5. ↑ Green, C.D. & Benjamin, L.T. (2009). Psychology gets in the game. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  6. ↑ Green, C.D. & Benjamin, L.T. (2009). Psychology gets in the game. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  7. ↑ Green, C.D. & Benjamin, L.T. (2009). Psychology gets in the game. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  8. ↑ Green, C.D. & Benjamin, L.T. (2009). Psychology gets in the game. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  9. ↑ Green, C.D. & Benjamin, L.T. (2009). Psychology gets in the game. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  10. ↑ Green, C.D. & Benjamin, L.T. (2009). Psychology gets in the game. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  11. ↑ Green, C.D. & Benjamin, L.T. (2009). Psychology gets in the game. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  12. ↑ Green, C.D. & Benjamin, L.T. (2009). Psychology gets in the game. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  13. ↑ Green, C.D. & Benjamin, L.T. (2009). Psychology gets in the game. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  14. ↑ Green, C.D. & Benjamin, L.T. (2009). Psychology gets in the game. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  15. ↑ Green, C.D. & Benjamin, L.T. (2009). Psychology gets in the game. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  16. ↑ Green, C.D. & Benjamin, L.T. (2009). Psychology gets in the game. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  17. ↑ Green, C.D. & Benjamin, L.T. (2009). Psychology gets in the game. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  18. ↑ Goodwin, C. J. (2009). E. W. Scripture: The application of "new psychology" methodology to athletics. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 78-97). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  19. ↑ Davis, S. F., Huss, M. T., & Becker, A. H. (2009). Norman Triplett: Recognizing the importance of competition. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 98-115). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  20. ↑ Davis, S. F., Huss, M. T., & Becker, A. H. (2009). Norman Triplett: Recognizing the importance of competition. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 98-115). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  21. ↑ Davis, S. F., Huss, M. T., & Becker, A. H. (2009). Norman Triplett: Recognizing the importance of competition. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 98-115). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  22. ↑ Davis, S. F., Huss, M. T., & Becker, A. H. (2009). Norman Triplett: Recognizing the importance of competition. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 98-115). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  23. ↑ Davis, S. F., Huss, M. T., & Becker, A. H. (2009). Norman Triplett: Recognizing the importance of competition. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 98-115). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  24. ↑ Davis, S. F., Huss, M. T., & Becker, A. H. (2009). Norman Triplett: Recognizing the importance of competition. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 98-115). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  25. ↑ Davis, S. F., Huss, M. T., & Becker, A. H. (2009). Norman Triplett: Recognizing the importance of competition. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 98-115). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  26. ↑ Davis, S. F., Huss, M. T., & Becker, A. H. (2009). Norman Triplett: Recognizing the importance of competition. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 98-115). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  27. ↑ "Swifter, higher, stronger: The history of sport psychology". Retrieved 2013-11-03.
  28. ↑ "Swifter, higher, stronger: The history of sport psychology". Retrieved 2013-11-03.
  29. ↑ Dewsbury, D. A. (2009). Karl S. Lashley and John B. Watson: Early research on the acquisition of skill in archery. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 116-143). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  30. ↑ Fuchs, A. H. (2009). Psychology and baseball: The testing of Babe Ruth. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 144-167). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  31. ↑ Fuchs, A. H. (2009). Psychology and baseball: The testing of Babe Ruth. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 144-167). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  32. ↑ Fuchs, A. H. (2009). Psychology and baseball: The testing of Babe Ruth. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 144-167). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  33. ↑ "The early days of sport psychology". Retrieved 2013-11-03.
  34. ↑ "The early days of sport psychology". Retrieved 2013-11-03.
  35. ↑ Green, C. D. (2009). Coleman Roberts Griffith: "Father" of North American sport psychology. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 202-229). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  36. ↑ Green, C. D. (2009). Coleman Roberts Griffith: "Father" of North American sport psychology. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 202-229). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  37. ↑ Green, C. D. (2009). Coleman Roberts Griffith: "Father" of North American sport psychology. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 202-229). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  38. ↑ Green, C. D. (2009). Coleman Roberts Griffith: "Father" of North American sport psychology. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 202-229). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  39. ↑ Baker, David, Graef, Stephen T., and Kornspan, Alan S. (2009). Paul Brown Bringing Psychological Testing to Football. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 230-252). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  40. ↑ Baker, David, Graef, Stephen T., and Kornspan, Alan S. (2009). Paul Brown Bringing Psychological Testing to Football. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 230-252). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  41. ↑ Kornspan, Alan S. (2009).Enhancing Performance in Sport: The use of hypnosis and other psychological techniques in the 1950s and 1960s. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 253-282). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  42. ↑ Kornspan, Alan S. (2009).Enhancing Performance in Sport: The use of hypnosis and other psychological techniques in the 1950s and 1960s. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 253-282). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  43. ↑ Benjamin, L.T., and Green C.D. (2009). The “Proper” History of Sports Psychology. In C. D. Green & L. T. Benjamin (Eds.), Psychology gets in the game (pp. 283-294). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  44. ↑ "Sport Psychology". Retrieved 2013-11-03.
  45. ↑ "Sport Psychology". Retrieved 2013-11-03.
  46. ↑ "Sport Psychology". Retrieved 2013-11-03.
  47. ↑ "Sport Psychology". Retrieved 2013-11-03.
  48. ↑ "Sport Psychology". Retrieved 2013-11-03.
  49. ↑ "Sport Psychology". Retrieved 2013-11-03.
  50. ↑ "Sport Psychology". Retrieved 2013-11-03.
  51. ↑ "Sport Psychology". Retrieved 2013-11-03.
  52. ↑ "Sport Psychology". Retrieved 2013-11-03.
  53. ↑ Silva, John (1984). "The Emergence of Applied Sports Psychology: Contemporary Trends - Future Issues". International Journal of Sports Psychology. 15 (1): 40–51.
  54. ↑ Gardner, Frank; Moore, Zella (2012). "Mindfulness and Acceptance Models in Sport Psychology: A Decade of Basic and Applied Scientific Advancements". Canadian Psychology. 53 (4): 309–318.
  55. ↑ Gardner, Frank; Moore, Zella (2012). "Mindfulness and Acceptance Models in Sport Psychology: A Decade of Basic and Applied Scientific Advancements". Canadian Psychology. 53 (4): 309–318.
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