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Medieval history of Pakistan

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Statue of an Indus priest or king found in Mohenjodaro, 1927
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The intricately carved Chaukhandi Tombs of Sindh, Pakistan. Built by the then ruling Baluch family in the 15th and 19th centuries.

Medieval history of Pakistan encompasses a significant era in the history of Pakistan or the greater Indus region, bridging the "ancient period" and the "modern period."[1] This era is generally considered to span from the advent of Islam in the 6th century CE to the early modern period, marked by the rise of the Mughal Empire in 1526. However, some historians may adjust these dates based on specific regional developments and historical perspectives. The medieval period is further divided into the early medieval and late medieval eras.[2]

In the early medieval period, the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent was home to over 40 distinct states, each characterized by diverse cultures, languages, writing systems, and religions.[3] Buddhism was predominant at the beginning of this era, with significant institutions and influence by the end of this period much of the region embraced Islam and it became the dominant religion in the region.[4][5]

The late medieval period saw a consolidation of Islamic power in the region. Many local rulers converted to Islam, leading to the establishment of prominent Islamic dynasties, including the Delhi Sultanate, which dominated the region until the early 16th century.[6] Buddhism declined during this period, but Hinduism persisted and strengthened in areas under Muslim control. The turn of the 16th century marked a significant shift with the introduction of gunpowder and the rise of the Mughal Empire. The Mughals, alongside the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia, were one of the major Islamic gunpowder empires.[7][8][9] The ensuing cultural and technological advancements during the Mughal era transformed society, transitioning the region from the medieval to the early modern period.

Terminology and periodization

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The medieval period in Pakistan is generally defined as spanning from the 6th century CE[10] to the 16th century CE.[11][12] This timeframe aligns with the broader Middle Ages in European history, though exact dates can vary depending on specific historical perspectives. The period is typically divided into two sub-eras:

  • Early Medieval Period: This spans from the 6th to the 13th century, a time marked by diverse regional powers and the early spread of Islamic influence.[10]
  • Late Medieval Period: Covering the 13th to the 16th century, this era saw the consolidation of Islamic rule, the decline of Buddhism, and the rise of the Mughal Empire.[13]

Some historians suggest alternative periodizations. For instance, the medieval period might be considered to start around 1000 CE or the 12th century.[14] The end of the medieval period might be extended to the 18th century, encompassing the transition from Muslim rule to British colonial dominance.[15][16]

The term "medieval" has faced scrutiny in the context of South Asian history.[17] Critics argue that the European concept of the medieval period, characterized by distinct shifts and developments, does not align perfectly with South Asian historical changes.[18] Burton Stein, among others, used the concept to describe the era from the Guptas to the Mughals. However, contemporary historians, particularly those from South Asia, often specify the periods they cover more precisely to avoid the ambiguities associated with the term.[19]

Periods

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Mughal era Pakistan
Royal Shalimar Gardens at Lahore[20]
The Alamgiri Gate of the Lahore Fort was built during the reign of Aurangzeb.[20]
Diwan-i-Khas at Lahore Fort was built during the reign of Shah Jahan.
The Badshahi Mosque, built by Aurangzeb, is one of the largest mosques in Pakistan.
Wazir Khan Mosque at Lahore, richly decorated with Mughal frescoes.
The Akbari Sarai features a monumental gateway that leads to the Tomb of Emperor Jahangir.

Following is a timeline of medieval Pakistan, highlighting the various dynasties that ruled from the Early Medieval to the Late Medieval and Early Modern periods:

Early Medieval Period

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  • Rashidun Caliphate (632–661 CE): Early Islamic influence in Sindh, with military expeditions establishing initial footholds.[21]
  • Umayyad Caliphate (711–750 CE): Established Islamic rule in Sindh, laying the groundwork for future Muslim governance in the region.[22]
  • Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE): Nominal influence in the region through trade and cultural exchange, with governors administering various areas.[23]
  • Habbari dynasty (854–1011 CE): Arab dynasty that ruled much of Sindh, as a semi-independent emirate from 854 to 1024. The region became semi-independent from the Abbasid Caliphate in 861, while continuing to nominally pledge allegiance to the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad.[24]
  • Ghaznavid Empire (971–1186 CE): Founded by Mahmud of Ghazni, this empire exerted significant influence over parts of modern-day Pakistan, promoting Islamic culture and architecture.[25]
  • Soomra dynasty (1026–1440): A medieval Ismaili dynasty of Sindh ruled by the Soomro tribe. Ruled much of Sindh until 1351, but continued in exile until 1440 in Umerkot.[26]
  • Rajput Kingdoms (6th–11th centuries CE): Various local states in the northwestern regions, interacting with both Islamic and non-Islamic powers.
  • Hindu Shahi Dynasty (850–1021 CE): Ruled over much of northwesten Pakistan, particularly in the northwestern regions, resisting Islamic expansion.[27]
  • Chach Dynasty (6th–7th centuries CE): Preceded the Islamic period in Sindh, notable for its resistance against early Muslim incursions.[28]
  • Alchon Huns (4th–5th centuries CE): A branch of the Huns, they ruled parts of the northwestern regions, including Pakistan, before the rise of the more prominent Huns.[29]
  • Nezak Huns (5th–7th centuries CE): Successors of the Alchons, they controlled parts of the region, influencing local politics and culture during their reign.[30]
  • Takka (7th century CE): A lesser-known dynasty in the region of Punjab, part of the complex political landscape of early medieval Pakistan.[31]
  • Second Gonanda Dynasty (circa 2nd century CE): Known for its rule in the region around Taxila and Kashmir, this dynasty is part of the broader historical context of the region.[31]

Late Medieval Period

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  • Ghurid Dynasty (1148–1215 CE): Played a crucial role in the transition to the Delhi Sultanate, with significant military and political influence in the region.
  • Makpon dynasty (1190–1840): A Balti Tibetan dynasty that ruled northeastern regions of Pakistan. The most prosperous period started with Ali Senge Anchan, who united Baltistan and expanded his rule from Chitral to the Mansarowar Valley in Western Tibet. Makpon empire under Ali Senge Anchan is regarded as the "Golden age" of Baltiyul.[32]
  • Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE):
    • Mamluk Dynasty (1206–1290 CE): Established by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, marking the beginning of Muslim rule in the Indian subcontinent.
    • Khilji Dynasty (1290–1320 CE): Known for its expansion and administrative reforms under rulers like Alauddin Khilji.
    • Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414 CE): Notable for its architectural achievements and administrative innovations under rulers like Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
    • Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451 CE): Short-lived but influential in maintaining the Delhi Sultanate's presence.
    • Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526 CE): The last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, leading up to the Mughal conquest.

Early Modern Period

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  • Mughal Empire (1526–1857 CE): Founded by Babur, the Mughals established a significant and enduring empire that transformed the region through cultural, architectural, and administrative advancements.
  • Rajput Kingdoms and States (continued influence): Various regional powers that interacted with both the Mughal Empire and the larger political landscape.
  • Kalhora Dynasty (1701–1783 CE): Rulers of Sindh, known for their administration and resistance against the encroaching British influence.
  • Early Sikh States/Misls (late 16th–early 17th centuries CE): Emergence of Sikh political entities in Punjab, which later coalesced into the Sikh Empire.
  • Sikh Empire (1799–1849 CE): Founded by Ranjit Singh, this empire controlled a significant portion of the northwestern region before falling to British rule.
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References

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Citations

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  1. ↑ Ahmed, Mukhtar (2014-10-25). Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume V: The End of the Harappan Civilization, and the Aftermath. Amazon. ISBN 978-1-4997-0982-7.
  2. ↑ Khan, Yar Muhammad (1996). Recent Studies in Medieval History of Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent. Institute of Secular Studies, with special arrangement from S. Chand Publisher's Distributors, Beawar, Rajasthan.
  3. ↑ Keay, John (2000). India: A History. Grove Press. pp. xx–xxi.
  4. ↑ Auer, Blain; Strauch, Ingo (2019-08-19). Encountering Buddhism and Islam in Premodern Central and South Asia. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-11-063168-5.
  5. ↑ History of Asia by B.V. Rao p.211
  6. ↑ Berger et al. 2016, p. 107.
  7. ↑ Dodgson, Marshall G.S. (2009). The Venture of Islam. Vol. 3. University of Chicago Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-226-34688-5.
  8. ↑ "Notes on the Gunpowder Empires". novaonline.nvcc.edu. Retrieved 2024-07-29.
  9. ↑ Streusand, Douglas E. (2011). Islamic gunpowder empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-1359-7. OCLC 191926598.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 "India before the British: The Mughal Empire and its Rivals, 1526-1857". University of Exeter. Archived from the original on 12 April 2016. Retrieved 12 August 2017.
  11. ↑ Chakravarti, Mahadev, The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through the Ages, pp. 153-154, 1986, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN 8120800532, 9788120800533, google books Archived 19 October 2023 at the Wayback Machine
  12. ↑ Stein, Burton (27 April 2010), Arnold, D. (ed.), A History of India (2nd ed.), Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, p. 105, ISBN 978-1-4051-9509-6
  13. ↑ Parthasarathi, Prasannan (2011), Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850, Cambridge University Press, pp. 39–45, ISBN 978-1-139-49889-0, archived from the original on 4 April 2023, retrieved 28 March 2019
  14. ↑ According to the article on "Architecture" Archived 16 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine in Banglapedia, "Unlike European periodisation, the medieval period in Indian history is generally regarded to have started with the coming of the Muslims, particularly the conquest of Delhi towards the end of the twelfth century by the Ghorids of Afghanistan." The "generally regarded" is dubious.
  15. ↑ Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. p. 6. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0. Due to such reasons, most historians have discarded the Hindu-Muslim-British periodization of the Indian past in favour of a more neutral classification into the ancient, early medieval, and modern periods. The dividing lines may vary, but the ancient period can be considered as stretching roughly from the earliest times to the 6th century CE; the early medieval from the 6th to the 13th centuries; the medieval from the 13th to 18th centuries; and the modern from the 18th century to the present. The current use of these terms shifts the focus away from religious labels towards patterns of significant socio-economic changes.
  16. ↑ Ahmed, xviii
  17. ↑ Keay, 155 "... the history of what used to be called 'medieval' India ..."
  18. ↑ Rowland, 273
  19. ↑ Examples: Farooqui; Radhey Shyam Chaurasia, History of Medieval India: From 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D., 2002, google books Archived 5 February 2024 at the Wayback Machine; Satish Chandra, Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals, 2004 (2 vols), google books Archived 5 February 2024 at the Wayback Machine; Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th century, 2008, google books Archived 5 February 2024 at the Wayback Machine
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 "Fort and Shalamar Gardens in Lahore". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 13 December 2018.
  21. ↑ Najib-ur-Rehmn, Sultan-ul-Ashiqeen Sultan Mohammad (2022-10-09). The Rashidun Caliphate. Sultan ul Faqr Publications. ISBN 978-969-2220-24-8.
  22. ↑ Khushalani, Gobind (2006). Chachnamah Retold : An Account Of The Arab Conquest Of Sindh. Bibliophile South Asia. ISBN 978-81-85002-68-2.
  23. ↑ MacLean, Derryl N. (2023-10-20). Religion and Society in Arab Sind. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-66929-1.
  24. ↑ P. M. ( Derryl N. Maclean), Religion and society in Arab Sindh, Published by Brill, 1989, ISBN 90-04-08551-3, ISBN 978-90-04-08551-0 pg 140-143.
  25. ↑ Wynbrandt, J. (2009). A Brief History of Pakistan. pg 26.
  26. ↑ DADUZEN, Dayal N. Harjani aka (2018-07-19). Sindhi Roots & Rituals - Part 1. Notion Press. ISBN 978-1-64249-289-7.
  27. ↑ Khan, Ijaz (2017). Exploring the Settlement Archaeology of the Hindu Shahi Dynasty (c. 822 CE to C. 1026 CE) in North-western Pakistan. University of Leicester.
  28. ↑ Kazi, Ismail (2012-09-26). The Chachnamah: Giving the Hindu Period Down to the Arab Conquest. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 978-1-4793-9317-6.
  29. ↑ Rezakhani 2017, pp. 105–124.
  30. ↑ Rezakhani 2017, p. 159.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 "-- Schwartzberg Atlas -- Digital South Asia Library". dsal.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2024-07-29.
  32. ↑ Afridi, Banat Gul (1988). Baltistan in History. Emjay Books International.

Sources

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